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Clinical Anatomy 27:4–9 (2014)
A GLIMPSE OF OUR PAST
Gabriel Falloppius (1523–1562) and the Facial
Canal
VERONICA MACCHI,1 ANDREA PORZIONATO,1 ALDO MORRA,2
1
AND
RAFFAELE DE CARO1*
Institute of Anatomy, Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, Italy
2
Section of Radiology, Euganea Medica Group, Padova
Gabriel Falloppius is known for his contributions to anatomy. Indeed, many
anatomic structures bear his name, such as the Fallopian tubes, and his
descriptions often contradicted those of other notable anatomists, such as
Galen and Andreas Vesalius. In his textbook “Observationes Anatomicae,” he
described for the first time the structures of the ear, eye, and female reproductive organs, and elucidated the development of the teeth. Furthermore, Falloppius described the facial canal. The objectives of this paper are to provide an
overview of Falloppius’s life and to discuss the clinical relevance of the facial
canal as understood from his description of this anatomic structure. Clin. Anat.
27:4–9, 2014. VC 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Key words: radiological anatomy; medical history; facial canal
The name of Falloppius is well known because of
his immense contribution to anatomy, famous to the
point that many anatomic structures bear his name.
Curiously, the most frequently mentioned structure,
the fallopian tube, was actually described by Herophilus, a great anatomist of the second century B.C.
(Wells, 1948; Kothary and Kothary, 1975), whereas
one of Falloppius discovers, the Poupart’s ligament
should be called the Falloppian ligament, since Falloppius described it half a century before the French
anatomist Poupart (Wells, 1948).
The aim of this article is to report some information
about his life, and to focus the attention on the clinical
application of one of his discoveries, the Fallopean
canal (aqueduct).
Gabriel Falloppius was born in Modena in 1523 to
Catherine Bergomozzi and Girolamo Falloppius (Kothary and Kothary, 1975). Falloppius was 10 years old
when his father died. Supported by his relatives, he
began studying the humanities, and the open-minded
culture and academic environment of Modena was
conductive to his education. After a few years, he
started to focus on studying medicine and anatomy.
The teaching of medicine had not been yet established
in Modena, and thus Falloppius conducted his studies
in the medical sciences independently. Falloppius
became very knowledgeable in the subjects of anatomy, surgery, and pharmacology. He studied the texts
of Galen and Berengario of Capri, and performed
many dissections on animals and examined the bodies
C
V
2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
of executed criminals, thereby complementing his
reading of texts with cadaveric studies (Belloni Speciale, 1994).
In 1545, Falloppius travelled certainly to Ferrara,
where he studied medicine under the guidance of
Antonio Musa Brasavola. The Duke of Florence,
Cosimo I de Medicine, offered Falloppius the Chair of
Anatomy in Pisa, which he held from 1548 to 1551
(Wells, 1948). While in Pisa, Falloppius conducted
experiments on the effectiveness of opium administered for the purposes of executing individuals condemned to death, and these efforts led him to be
accused of practicing human vivisection (Kothary and
Kothary, 1975). In addition, he studied the identification, classification, and pharmaceutical use of plants
implemented in the Latin, Greek, and Arabic medical
traditions (Belloni Speciale, 1994).
In 1551, Falloppius became Professor of Anatomy,
Surgery, and Botany, at the University of Padova, a
chair previously held by Andreas Vesalius. His lectures
on anatomy mainly involved discussing normal
*Correspondence to: Prof. Raffaele De Caro, Institute of
Anatomy, Department of Molecular Medicine, Via A Gabelli 65,
35127 Padova, Italy. E-mail: rdecaro@unipd.it
Received 7 December 2012; Revised 14 February 2013;
Accepted 19 February 2013
Published online 1 April 2013 in Wiley Online
(wileyonlinelibrary.com). DOI: 10.1002/ca.22241
Library
The Facial Falloppian Canal
anatomy and dissecting human body and animals. In
addition to teaching, Falloppius practiced medicine. He
was summoned to Rome to treat the brother of Pope
Julius III, and he also worked for the Estense family
of Ferrara. However, from 1556 to 1557, Falloppius
was afflicted with chronic fatigue. His academic
5
responsibilities were tiring for him. Furthermore, he
developed a chronic pulmonary infection, and as he
taught anatomy mainly during the winter, his work as
an instructor was affected. On October 9, 1962,
Falloppius became gravely ill and died, likely from tuberculosis (Kothary and Kothary, 1975). He was
6
Macchi et al.
entombed at the Saint Anthony Basilica in Padova. In
XVIII century his tomb was demolished for the purposes of restoration of the church, and his remains
were placed in the tomb of his friend Melchiorre Guilandino (Belloni Speciale, 1994; Fig. 1b).
Falloppius stressed the need for instructors of anatomy to utilize a methodology that emphasized direct
observation (“quoniam former sense hoc east cognoscendum not autem ex ratione”), and he highlighted
the differences between his observations of anatomic
structures and those reported in textbooks by Galen
and Vesalius. In 1557, Falloppius began writing the
textbook “Observationes Anatomicae” . He attempted
to elucidate anatomic development by studying
fetuses, infants, children, and adults, introducing the
method of developmental anatomy and embryology.
This method was then developed by two of his most
famous students, Hieronymus Fabricius ab Aquapendente and Volcher Koyter. In particular, Aquapendente
starting from the dissection and anatomy of a structure, describes then its independent action, and its
interdependent function in the body (Smith et al.,
2004).
Unlike many of his contemporaries, Falloppius did
not include illustrations of anatomic structures in
Observationes Anatomicae, published in Venice in
1561 (Fig. 1a), in which the numerous discoveries,
that Falloppius made, are noted. This book consisted
mainly of corrections to and commentaries on Vesalius’s Fabrica (Kothary and Kothary, 1975). Albrecht
van Haller states that Falloppius, in his controversy
with Vesalius, was generally on the right side (Wells,
1948). Falloppius made more discoveries than
Vesalius did, and Falloppius’s research is considered
more precise than that of Vesalius (Ongaro, 2001),
nie de l’invention; Ve
sale, le ge
enie
“Fallope avait le ge
thode; ou pluto
^ t Fallope avait du ge
nie,
de la me
sale n’avait que du savoir’” (Daremberg, 1870).
Ve
In addition to the fallopian tubes, the following
structures bear Falloppius’s name: the opening in the
petrosal bone through which the greater superficial
petrosal nerve passes (falloppian hiatus), and the
small canal in the petrous portion of the temporal
bone through which the facial nerve passes
(falloppean canal or aqueduct). Moreover, he
described an obstetrical anomaly in which implantation of the embryo occurs in one of the fallopian tubes
(falloppian gestation or tubal pregnancy). Falloppius
was the first scholar in the Modern Age to develop the
concept of tissues, which he referred to as “partes
similares,” and the first to state that muscle is made
of connective tissue (Table 1; Tosoni, 1844; Wells,
1948; Speert, 1955; Kothary and Kothary, 1975;
Ongaro, 2001; Mortazavi et al., 2012; Porzionato
et al., 2012).
The facial canal, or fallopean canal, runs across the
medial wall and down the posterior wall of the tympanic cavity to the stylomastoid foramen (Proctor,
1989). The canal of the facial nerve is located inside
the temporal pyramid, and is classically divided into
three segments that are separated by the genu. The
first, or labyrinthine segment, is horizontal, is directed
in an anterior direction, extends from the internal
auditory canal, and is located perpendicular to the
axis of the pyramid; then, it bends sharply going parallel to the greater axis of the pyramid to become the
second or tympanic portion, and then bends a second
time to become vertical until it emerges at the stylomastoid foramen as the third or mastoid portion
(Proctor, 1989) (Figs. 1c and 1d).
While the facial nerve runs in its canal, three
branches, which are the greater petrosal nerve, stapedius nerve, and chorda tympani, exit from the main
trunk. Consequently, the number of nerve fibers
decreases as the nerve approaches the canal exit and
the width of the facial nerve on the distal end is sig€ der, 1994). The main crossnificantly smaller (Schro
sectional area of the exit of the facial canal is wider
compared to the entrance (Dawidowsky et al., 2011),
which Falloppius himself reports (Figs. 1c and 1d).
The size of the facial canal is an important factor in
Bell’s palsy, which is the most common cause of peripheral paralysis in the world. It results from acute
damage to the facial nerve. Several hypothesis concerning its etiology have been proposed, such as
ischemic neuropathy, infection, and genetic and
immunologic causes. Edema of the facial nerve plays
a role in the pathophysiology of Bell’s palsy
Fig. 1. (A) The frontispiece of the textbook
“Observationes Anatomicae” published in 1561 in Venice.
(B) The tomb of Falloppius in the Saint Anthony Basilica.
(C,D) Original description of facial canal at page 27 and
28 of Observationes anatomicae, in which one reads “the
third thing, that I think worthy of attention, is a bony
canal [canalis n. facialis] that runs almost below this cavity [n.d.t. coclear cavity] and exits from the skull behind
the ear burls, more precisely between that and the mastoid process [foramen stylomastoideum]. It begins in the
cranial cavity; if you look closely, you’ll see the fifth pair
of nerves, named this way from other anatomists, extend
almost to the middle of the process of the temporal bone,
which we call internal or petrosal; expanding in this direction, this pair of nerves enters a channel into the bone
[meatus acusticus internus] and inside of it, it divides into
two branches, a big [n. vestibulocochlearis] and a small
very thin and hard one [n. facialis]. This posterior branch,
pierces the bone, flows in the direction of the front of the
head by a hidden channel, then reflects back, enters the
tympanum and, thanks to its own bony canal, goes down
and back, to the root of the wing ear, spreading as I will
describe later. The path followed by this nerve is the channel I’m talking about, which I call by similarity ‘aqueduct’
and which the other anatomists, in my opinion, do not
know well, since they describe it as tortuous, or as a
goat’s horn, or sometimes spiral, calling also, what is
worse, blind meatus, not without error, because they
should know that a part of the intestine is called ‘blind’ in
that it has an input and not an output. This channel
instead has an outlet hole, which is more evident than
that of the input”.
The Facial Falloppian Canal
7
TABLE 1. Discoveries of Falloppius
System
Bones and
cartilages
Discoveries
Sphenoid sinus
Nerve
Muscles
Levator palpebrae
muscle
Ear
Stapea
Female
reproductive
Eye
Tooth
Bowel
Kidney
a
Connection between surface
mucous membrane and
dental lamina
Villi and valvulae
conniventes
Straight tubules,
calyxes, three
layered muscular
coat of the bladder
Descriptions
Ethmoid and sphenoid bone,
sphenoid sinus, lacrimal bone
with lacrimal duct, condyles of
the humerus and femur and the
tuberosity of the tibia. Primary
and secondary ossification
(skull, sternum and innominate
bones)
Auditory (CN VIII) and glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX) which
is separated from the accessory
nerve (CN XI), oculomotor (CN
III), trigeminal (CN V), and
hypoglossal nerve (XII), origin
of the troclear nerve (IV), the
cardiac plexus
Attachments of the intercostal
muscles, extrinsic muscles of
ear, muscles of head and neck,
muscle of mastication, muscle
of the soft and hard palates
Round and oval windows, scala
vestibuli, semicircular canals,
incudo-malleolar joint
Ovaries, round ligament, clitoris,
hymen, vagina and placenta
Combined action of the oblique
muscles and trochlea of superior oblique
Primary dentition, follicle of tooth
and development of secondary
tooth
Ileocecal valve
Invention of names
Cricoid
Pyramidalis (Falloppian)
Muscle
Cochlea,
labyrinthtympanum
Vagina, placenta,
Falloppian tubes
Falloppian ileocecal
valve
Some authors attributed the discovered of the stape to Ingrassia (Kothary and Kothary, 1975).
(Yanagihara et al., 2000). Magnetic resonance imaging suggests that Bell’s palsy may be caused by viral
neuronitis either in the labyrinthine segment at the
apex of the internal auditory canal, or in the adjacent
brainstem (Schwaber et al., 1990; Yetiser et al.,
2003; Lim et al., 2012). Furthermore, controversial
reports about the dimensions of the facial canal in
patients with Bell’s palsy have been published (Wadin
et al., 1987; Kefalidis et al., 2010). During dissection,
Yanagihara et al (1988) identified the tympanic portion as the narrowest part of the facial canal. Microscopic studies with three-dimensional reconstructions
demonstrate that the narrowest parts are the proximal part of the labyrinthine portion and the middle
part of the tympanic portion (Nakashima et al., 1993;
Kefalides et al, 2010; Murai et al., 2012).
Developments in compute tomography (CT) imaging allow for more detailed studies of anatomic structures. Multiplanar reformatting and three-dimensional
CT reconstructions are used to evaluate the facial
canal (Fatterpekar et al., 2006) (Fig. 2). At high
resolution, the cross-section of the bony canal might
vary in shape (Kefalidis et al., 2010). Furthermore,
greater variation among subjects in the size of the facial canal or foramen and intra-subject variation in the
left and right portions have been reported, which confirms that asymmetry is a more important marker for
abnormality than actual size (Sepahdari and Mong,
2013). In patients with Bell’s palsy, CT examinations
reveal that the mean combined cross-sectional area of
the labyrinthine and horizontal segments of the facial
canal is significantly smaller on the affected side than
on the unaffected side.
In conclusion, Falloppius described the structure
of the facial canal accurately and discussed the
dimensions of its entrance and exit points. The facial
canal is clinically relevant. Modern imaging techniques allow the acquisition of sectional images and
reconstruction of three-dimensional models for visualizing internal structures. These images are useful
for the purposes of education in anatomy (Macchi
et al., 2012).
8
Macchi et al.
Fig. 2. (A–D): 3D-CT reconstruction of a skull showing the three segments of the facial canal (a. labyrinthine,
b. tympanic, c. mastoid). e. picture of an open tympanic
pyramid. Co, coclea, SCC superior semicircular canal,
SMF, stylomastoid formanen. Arrows pointed the facial
canal. CT images were obtained on a 256-slice multidetector CT scanner (Philips iCT 256; Philips Medical
Systems; the Netherlands) with the following parameters: slice thickness 0.67 mm, kV 120, mA 65. Analysis
and postprocessing of scans were carried out on a Terarecon Acquarius iNtuition 4.4.7. [Color figure can be viewed
in the online issue, which is available at wileyonline
library.com.]
The Facial Falloppian Canal
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors are grateful to Dr. Anna Rambaldo, Gloria Sarasin and to Gianpaolo Mornata for skilful technical assistance, to Miss Alberta Coi and Dr. Giulia Rigoni
for the help with the references, to Dr. Giulia Andretta
for the English review. They also thank Euganea Medica
for the radiological study.
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