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CLINICAL INVESTIGATION
Driving Cessation and Health Outcomes in Older Adults
Stanford Chihuri, MPH,*† Thelma J. Mielenz, PhD, MS,*‡ Charles J. DiMaggio, PhD,§ Marian E. Betz,
MD, MPH,¶ Carolyn DiGuiseppi, MD, PhD,** Vanya C. Jones, PhD,†† and Guohua Li, MD, DrPH*†‡
OBJECTIVES: To determine what effect driving cessation
may have on subsequent health and well-being in older
adults.
DESIGN: Systematic review of the evidence in the
research literature on the consequences of driving cessation
in older adults.
SETTING: Community.
PARTICIPANTS: Drivers aged 55 and older.
MEASUREMENTS: Studies pertinent to the health consequences of driving cessation were identified through a
comprehensive search of bibliographic databases. Studies
that presented quantitative data for drivers aged 55 and
older; used a cross-sectional, cohort, or case–control
design; and had a comparison group of current drivers
were included in the review.
RESULTS: Sixteen studies met the inclusion criteria. Driving cessation was reported to be associated with declines
in general health and physical, social, and cognitive function and with greater risks of admission to long-term care
facilities and mortality. A meta-analysis based on pooled
data from five studies examining the association between
driving cessation and depression revealed that driving cessation almost doubled the risk of depressive symptoms in
older adults (summary odds ratio = 1.91, 95% confidence
interval = 1.61–2.27).
CONCLUSION: Driving cessation in older adults appears
to contribute to a variety of health problems, particularly
depression. These adverse health consequences should be
considered in making the decision to cease driving. InterFrom the *Center for Injury Epidemiology and Prevention, Columbia
University Medical Center, New York City, New York; †Department of
Anesthesiology, College of Physicians and Surgeons; ‡Department of
Epidemiology, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University;
§
Department of Surgery, New York University School of Medicine, New
York City, New York; ¶Department of Emergency Medicine, School of
Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora,
Colorado; **Department of Epidemiology, Colorado School of Public
Health, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora,
Colorado; and ††Department of Health, Behavior and Society, Bloomberg
School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland.
Address correspondence to Dr. Guohua Li, Center for Injury
Epidemiology and Prevention, Columbia University Medical Center, 722
West 168th Street, Room 524, New York, NY 10032. E-mail:
gl2240@cumc.columbia.edu
DOI: 10.1111/jgs.13931
vention programs ensuring mobility and social functions
may be needed to mitigate the potential adverse effects of
driving cessation on health and well-being in older adults.
J Am Geriatr Soc 64:332–341, 2016.
Key words: driving cessation; older adults; motor
vehicle; health outcomes
C
ar ownership and driving are highly correlated with
independence and life satisfaction in older adults.1–4
In the United States and other industrialized countries,
driving is often the most-preferred mode of personal transport, is regarded as an important aspect of personal freedom, and is associated with a sense of control over one’s
life.4–7 The capacity to drive is an important mechanism
through which many adults, young and old, fulfill their
social roles and engage with their environments.6 Driving
has also been identified as an important instrumental activity of daily living (IADL).7 In a study in Australia, older
adults rated driving as the second most important activity
of daily living (ADL) task, behind use of transportation
but ahead of leisure, reading, and medication management.8
Driving safety is especially relevant given the growing
older adult population; the proportion of the U.S. population aged 65 and older will increase from 13% in 2010 to
20% in 2040.9 Most adults continue driving in older age;
81% of the 39.5 million adults aged 65 and older in the
United States held a driver’s license.10 These older drivers
face unique challenges because driving is a complex task
that requires a variety of skills, including physical,
cognitive, behavioral, and sensory-perceptual abilities.11
Because of age-related declines in health and physical and
cognitive function, driving becomes more difficult for older
adults. Many older adults eventually reduce or stop their
driving activities, which may have adverse health
consequences.12–14
Health problems are the most commonly cited reasons
for driving cessation.15,16 Several community-based studies
have identified specific medical and socioeconomic factors
associated with driving cessation, such as recent hospital-
JAGS 64:332–341, 2016
© 2016 The Authors.
The Journal of the American Geriatrics Society published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of The American Geriatrics Society.
0002-8614/16/$15.00
This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs License, which permits use and
distribution in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited, the use is non-commercial and no modifications or adaptations are made.
JAGS
FEBRUARY 2016–VOL. 64, NO. 2
izations, neurological disorders (e.g., Parkinson’s disease,
stroke), visual disorders (e.g., cataracts, retinal hemorrhage, macular degeneration), low income, and unemployment.15,17–19 Other factors that may precipitate driving
cessation include advice and warning from a physician,
crash involvement, and intervention from a family member.2,20,21 Sociodemographic variables such as age, sex,
education, marital status, co-resident status, urban residence, and geographic location may also influence the
decision to cease driving.5,15,19,22–24
It is likely that the relationship between health status
and driving cessation is mutually causative; that is, declining health may lead to driving cessation, and driving cessation in turn may result in adverse health outcomes. In
addition, health declines can result from reduced access to
out-of-home medical care and difficulty picking up medications and making other health purchases. Although risk
factors for driving cessation have been studied extensively,3,15,17–19,22 there is less research examining the effect
of driving cessation on health outcomes.13 The objective of
this review was to assess and synthesize evidence in the
research literature on the consequences of driving cessation
in older adults.
METHODS
This systematic literature review included a narrative synthesis and a meta-analysis. The meta-analysis component
followed standard methodology and adhered to reporting
and procedures outlined in the Preferred Reporting Items
for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses25 and Meta-analysis Of Observational Studies in Epidemiology guidelines.26
Eligibility
Studies were eligible for inclusion if they included community-dwelling adults aged 55 and older, examined the
consequences of driving cessation, used an epidemiological design (cross-sectional, cohort, or case–control) that
compared driving cessation with continued driving, presented quantitative data on any health-related outcome
(e.g., physical, social, emotional), and were published in
English language. No date restrictions were applied.
Qualitative studies, letters, editorials, opinion pieces,
commentaries, and reviews were excluded. In this
review, driving cessation was defined as total discontinuation of operating a motor vehicle for productive, social,
spiritual, or any other purposes. Studies that exclusively
focused on driving reduction, which implies some continuation of driving, were excluded. Driving cessation could
be voluntary or involuntary, with or without loss of driver’s license.
Search Strategy, Data Sources, and Extraction
A medical librarian was consulted to review the search
strategy and terms. Relevant literature was identified
through a comprehensive search of the following electronic
databases on November 15, 2014: American Psychological
Association PsychINFO (1967-present), Scopus (1960-present), Transport Research International Documentation
(TRID) (1970-present), Medline OVID (1946-present), and
HEALTH CONSEQUENCES OF DRIVING CESSATION
333
MELVYL (the online catalog of the University of California library system) (1970-present). One author (SC)
screened all the titles and abstracts using the inclusion and
exclusion criteria. The full text of studies with uncertain
eligibility was reviewed using these criteria. Information
was abstracted from each included study on primary
author, publication year, country of study population or
where study data originated, study design, source of driving cessation status, comparison group, outcomes assessed,
methods of outcome assessment, and results. For the metaanalysis, two authors (SC, GL) independently extracted the
data needed to calculate the individual odds ratio (OR)
and summary OR for the health outcome.
Quality Assessment, Data Synthesis, and Analysis
The quality of all included studies was evaluated using the
Newcastle-Ottawa Scale (NOS)27 for assessing the quality
of nonrandomized studies in meta-analyses, as recommended by the Cochrane Collaboration on bias assessment.28 The best possible score varies according to study
design; higher scores indicate better quality. In this version
of the scale, the highest possible score is 9 for a cohort
study. For the cross-sectional studies, the NOS was modified
to disregard the follow-up period and absence of outcome at
the start of the study; the highest possible score was 10.
Because of the numerous possible health-related consequences for driving cessation, studies were grouped
according to health outcomes for synthesis. The most-common health outcomes were identified and verified for consistency in outcome assessment to determine their
inclusion in the meta-analysis. Meta-analysis was considered for health outcomes that were measured consistently
in at least five studies.
For each health outcome, the Q and I2 tests were used
to assess heterogeneity.29 P ≤ .05 and I2 > 0.5 were considered heterogeneous.29 When visual examination of results
and test statistics indicated homogeneity, results were combined quantitatively. The individual odds ratio (OR) for
each study and the summary OR were calculated using
Comprehensive Meta-Analysis software.30 A fixed-effects
model was used unless significant heterogeneity was present,
in which case a random-effects model would be preferred.
Data from each study were manually entered into the
appropriate effect size column in the Comprehensive
Meta-Analysis software; for studies reporting the standardized mean difference (d), results were converted to ORs
using the following formula29:
p
Log odds ratio ¼ d pffiffiffi
3
where p is the mathematical constant. The variance of the
log OR was calculated using this formula29:
VLogoddsratio ¼ Vd
p2
3
A forest plot was created to show the distribution of
the effect of driving cessation across each study. Funnel
+
6
+
+
6
+
5
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
2
+
+
Greater
Cognitive
Decline
2
+
Less
Productive
Engagement
(e.g., Work)
4
+
+
+
Poorer
General
Health
2
+
+
Greater
Risk of
Mortality
1
+
Lower Outof-Home
Activity
Level
+
2
+
Greater
Dependency
and Loss
of Control
1
+
Greater Risk
of Entry into
Long-Term Care
FEBRUARY 2016–VOL. 64, NO. 2
+ = Significant association; = No significant association.
Al-Hassani et al. 2014
Choi et al. 2014
Curl et al. 2013
Edwards et al. 2009a
Edwards et al. 2009b
Fonda et al. 2001
Freeman et al. 2006
Liddle et al. 2012
Mann et al. 2005
Marottoli et al. 1997
Marottoli et al. 2000
Mezuk et al. 2008
O’Connor et al. 2013
Ragland et al. 2005
Siren et al. 2004
Windsor et al. 2007
Studies, n
Author, Year
Less
Social
Engagement
Greater
Depressive
Symptoms
Poorer
Functional
Status (Role
Playing)
Table 3. Categorical Health Outcomes Associated with Driving Cessation for the 16 Studies
JAGS
HEALTH CONSEQUENCES OF DRIVING CESSATION
337
Finish Vehicle Administration
center
ALSA
SPPARCS
ECA
ACTIVE Study
EPESE
Convenience sample from around
urban Queensland, Australia
Rehabilitation Engineering
Research Center on Aging,
Consumer Assessments Study
EPESE
AHEAD Study
Salisbury Eye Evaluation Study
Staying Keen in Later Life Study
Cohort
Cross-sectional
Cohort
Cohort
Cohort
Cohort
Cohort
Cross-sectional
Cross-sectional
Cohort
Cohort
Cohort
Australia
Finland
United States
United States
United States
United States
United States
United States
Australia
United States
United States
United States
United States
United States
United States
Kuwait
1992–1994
2003–2004
1993–1994
1993–2005
1999–2004
1982–1988
1982–1988
2004–2005
2009–2011
1993–1988
1993–2003
2004–2007
1999–2004
1998–2010
1998–2008
2012–2013
CES-D
Survey questionnaire
Likert scale
Turn 360 Test,
Medical Outcomes
Study 36-item
Short-Form Health
Survey, Likert scale,
family members
death confirmation
CES-D
EPESE
CES-D
CAS-IB
Face-face interviews
Social Security
Death Index
CES-D
Study questionnaire
Geriatric Depression
Scale
Telephone Interview
for Cognitive Status
RAND Corporation
questionnaires
CES-D
Source of
Outcome
Information
ALSA
Driver license register
SPPARCS
ECA
DHQ within the ACTIVE
Study
EPESE
EPESE
CAS-IB
Face-face interviews
AHEAD
Study questionnaire
DHQ within the ACTIVE
Study
Mobility questionnaire
HRS
HRS
Study questionnaire
Source of Driving Status
Information
HRS = Health and Retirement Study; ACTIVE = Advanced Cognitive Training for Independent and Vital Elderly; CES-D = Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale; DHQ = Driving Habits Questionnaire; AHEAD = Asset and Health Dynamics Among the Oldest Old; CAS-IB = Consumer Assessment Study Interview Battery; EPESE = Established Populations for Epidemiologic Studies for the Elderly;
ECA = Baltimore Epidemiologic Catchment Area Study; SPPARCS = Study of Physical Performance and Age-Related Changes in Sonomans; ALSA = Australian Longitudinal Study of Aging.
Windsor et al. 2007
Siren et al. 2004
Ragland et al. 2005
Mezuk et al. 2008
O’Connor et al. 2013
Marottoli et al. 2000
Marottoli et al. 1997
Mann et al. 2005
Liddle et al. 2012
Fonda et al. 2001
Freeman et al. 2006
Edwards et al. 2009b
Cohort
Cohort
Cohort
Cross-sectional
Location
Study
Time Period
FEBRUARY 2016–VOL. 64, NO. 2
1,772 adults aged ≥55 in Sonoma
County, CA
1,251 Finnish women born in
1927 (aged ≥70)
700 community-dwelling adults
aged ≥70
690 community-dwelling adults
aged ≥65
660 community-dwelling adults
aged 63–97
5,239 adults aged ≥70
1,593 adults aged 65–84 living in
Salisbury, MD
234 community-dwelling adults
aged ≥65
697 adults aged 60–106 with at
least one activity of daily living
difficulty
1,316 adults aged ≥65 living in
New Haven, CT
1,316 adults aged ≥65 living in
New Haven, CT
398 adults aged ≥60
2,793 community-dwelling adults
aged ≥65
Edwards et al. 2009a
ACTIVE Study
HRS
4,788 adults aged ≥65
Curl et al. 2013
Choi et al. 2014
Convenience sample through
Kuwait University
HRS
Data Source
114 community-dwelling adults
aged ≥55
9,135 adults aged ≥65
Study Subjects
Al-Hassani et al. 2014
Author, Year
Study
Design
Table 1. Characteristics of Studies Evaluating Driving Cessation for Health-Related Outcomes
JAGS
HEALTH CONSEQUENCES OF DRIVING CESSATION
335
336
CHIHURI ET AL.
FEBRUARY 2016–VOL. 64, NO. 2
JAGS
Table 2. Variables Measured in Studies Evaluating Driving Cessation and Health-Related Outcomes
Author, Year
Exposure and Covariates Assessed
Al-Hassani et al. 2014
Driving cessation, age, sex, marital status, education, selfrated health
Choi et al. 2014
Driving cessation, baseline cognitive function, health
status, age, sex, race, marital status, education
Driving cessation, sex, race, marital status, self-rated
health status
Driving cessation, baseline depressive symptoms, general
health, self-rated health, physical performance
Curl et al. 2013
Edwards et al. 2009a
Edwards et al. 2009b
Outcomes Measured
Liddle et al. 2012
Driving cessation, age, health, visual acuity, baseline
depressive symptoms, baseline cognitive function
Driving cessation, spouse’s driving status, age, race, sex,
education, geographical location, baseline health, physical
and cognitive functioning
Driving cessation, baseline health, cognitive function,
depressive symptoms, demographic characteristics
Driving cessation, health, ADLs, sex, age, living situation
Mann et al. 2005
Driving cessation, age, race, sex, health status
Marottoli et al. 1997
Driving cessation, health status, ADLs, age, sex, education,
marital status, housing type
Driving cessation, health status, ADLs, age, sex, education,
marital status, housing type
Driving cessation, age, race, education, self-rated health,
cognitive function
Driving cessation, age, sex, race, education, health status,
self-rated health, physical performance, geographic
location,
Driving cessation, health status age, sex, education,
marital status, cognitive function, baseline depression
status
Driving cessation, physical health, psychological wellbeing, marital status
Driving cessation, health and sensory function, age, sex,
education, marital status, income, perceived control,
baseline depressive symptoms
Fonda et al. 2001
Freeman et al. 2006
Marottoli et al. 2000
Mezuk et al. 2008
O’Connor et al. 2013
Ragland et al. 2005
Siren et al. 2004
Windsor et al. 2007
Depressive symptoms (Geriatric Depression Scale),
perceived control, self-reported health, life satisfaction
(Likert scale)
Cognitive function (Health and Retirement Study cognitive
battery)
Productive engagement and social engagement
Depressive symptoms (CES-D), self-rated health (Likert
scale), physical performance (Turn 360 test), general
health and functioning (SF-36)
Three-year mortality risk
Depressive symptoms (CES-D)
Long-term care entry (interviewer-administered
questionnaire)
Functional status (physical self-maintenance scale, IADL
scale), life satisfaction (Life Satisfaction Index), role
participation (role checklist), time use (semistructured
interview)
Self-rated health status (OARS physical health scale),
functional status (OARS IADL scale, Sickness Impact
Profile, Functional Independence Measure), mental status
(Mini-Mental State Examination)
Depressive symptoms (CES-D)
Self-reported out-of-home activity levels (home interviews)
Social network characteristics; friends and relatives (Likert
scale)
Self-rated health (Likert scale), physical performance (Turn
360 test), general health and functioning (SF-36)
Depressive symptoms (CES-D)
Self-rated health (self-report), life satisfaction (Satisfaction
Life Scale)
Depressive symptoms (CES-D), self-rated health and
sensory function (Likert scale), perceived control
(Expectancy of Control subscale of the Desired Control
Measure40,41)
CES-D = Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale; SF-36 = Medical Outcomes Study 36-item Short Form Survey; ADLs = activities of daily living; IADL = instrumental activity of daily living; OARS = Older Americans Resources and Services.
A Finnish study31 found that drivers were more likely
to assess their health as good (59.4%) than ex-drivers
(42.5%), and another study33 found that former drivers
had poorer overall health than current drivers, but because
both of these studies were cross-sectional, it is possible that
former drivers stopped driving because of poor health.
gitudinal studies even after adjusting for sociodemographic
factors and baseline health. Although one study14 reported
a 6.7-point decline in the physical functioning domain and
a 12-point decline in the physical role domain of the SF36, they examined a small sample of ex-drivers (n = 37) in
a cohort of 690 older adults.
Physical Health
Social Health
7,14,20,32,33
Of the five studies
that found declines in physical functioning, three were cross-sectional,7,20,33 making it
difficult to discern temporality, but these studies showed
that former drivers had less participation in outside activities and lower productivity in daily life activities than current drivers (Table 3). The association between driving
cessation and poor physical functioning was strong in lon-
Social health refers to the capacity to interact in society,
which can be measured according to social engagement,
social contacts, and satisfaction with social roles and social
support.7,14,20,32,34,35 Decline in social health after driving
cessation appeared greater in women than in men.14 The
reported declines in social health were not as rapid as
those in physical health.14,35 For example, one study34
+
6
+
+
6
+
5
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
2
+
+
Greater
Cognitive
Decline
2
+
Less
Productive
Engagement
(e.g., Work)
4
+
+
+
Poorer
General
Health
2
+
+
Greater
Risk of
Mortality
1
+
Lower Outof-Home
Activity
Level
+
2
+
Greater
Dependency
and Loss
of Control
1
+
Greater Risk
of Entry into
Long-Term Care
FEBRUARY 2016–VOL. 64, NO. 2
+ = Significant association; = No significant association.
Al-Hassani et al. 2014
Choi et al. 2014
Curl et al. 2013
Edwards et al. 2009a
Edwards et al. 2009b
Fonda et al. 2001
Freeman et al. 2006
Liddle et al. 2012
Mann et al. 2005
Marottoli et al. 1997
Marottoli et al. 2000
Mezuk et al. 2008
O’Connor et al. 2013
Ragland et al. 2005
Siren et al. 2004
Windsor et al. 2007
Studies, n
Author, Year
Less
Social
Engagement
Greater
Depressive
Symptoms
Poorer
Functional
Status (Role
Playing)
Table 3. Categorical Health Outcomes Associated with Driving Cessation for the 16 Studies
JAGS
HEALTH CONSEQUENCES OF DRIVING CESSATION
337
338
CHIHURI ET AL.
FEBRUARY 2016–VOL. 64, NO. 2
JAGS
reported that, over a 13-year period, driving cessation was
associated with a 51% reduction in the size of social networks of friends and relatives, which was not mediated by
the availability of or access to alternative transport. In
addition, support from family and friends remained
unchanged. Former drivers were likely to spend less time
in social activities and more time in solitary leisure or to
abandon previous social activities.7,20
3-year mortality, with nondrivers four to six times as
likely to die as drivers after adjusting for baseline psychological and general health, sensory function, and cognitive
abilities. The other study32 found that 5-year mortality risk
for nondrivers was 68% higher than in drivers. The stronger association reported in the first study36 may be due in
part to the fact that its study subjects were less healthy
than those in the latter.32
Cognitive Decline
Depressive Symptoms
34
One longitudinal study reported that former drivers had
poorer cognitive abilities as measured according to the
Mini-Mental State Examination than current drivers. Similarly, another study1 found that former drivers had faster
cognitive decline over a 10-year period than active drivers
even after controlling for baseline cognitive function and
general health. Current drivers were also healthier and had
better cognitive function than former drivers in a crosssectional study.33
Entry into Long-Term Care
The only study24 to evaluate entry into LTC reported that
former drivers were nearly five times (hazards ratio
(HR) = 4.85, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 3.26–7.21)
as likely as current drivers to be admitted to LTC facilities
(e.g., nursing home, assisted living community, retirement
home). Even after adjusting for marital status or co-residence, the authors found a strong association between
driving cessation and LTC entry.24 Having no other driver
in the house was independently associated with LTC entry
(HR = 1.72, 95% CI = 1.15–2.57).24
Risk of Mortality
There was a general agreement between the two studies32,36 that exclusively examined the relationship between
driving cessation and risk of mortality. One of these studies36 found that driving cessation was a strong predictor of
Five cohort studies2,4,6,7,14 that examined the effect of driving cessation on depressive symptoms in older adults were
included in a meta-analysis. Four of the studies reported significantly greater depressive symptoms in ex-drivers after
adjustment for potential confounding factors. Effect estimates did not show significant heterogeneity (Q = 3.266,
df = 4, P = .51; I2 = 0.000), indicating that the studies were
fairly homogenous, so a fixed-effects model was used. Overall, driving cessation almost doubled the risk of greater
depressive symptoms in older adults (summary OR = 1.91,
95% CI = 1.61–2.27) (Figure 2). A funnel plot for the five
studies did not indicate any major publication bias because
the summary OR was near the estimated effects from the
two largest studies. A cross-sectional study that used a different measure for depression also found that greater depressive symptoms were associated with driving cessation.7
DISCUSSION
Driving cessation in older adults is associated with a variety of adverse health outcomes, particularly greater depressive symptoms. These findings are generally consistent
with a previous review13 but update and expand the findings of that review with more than 10 additional years of
empirical research. Evidence of the association between
driving cessation and depression is robust and compelling.
Depressive symptoms were measured using the Center for
Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale in all five cohort
Figure 2. Forest plot, summary odds ratios (ORs), and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) of depressive symptoms associated with
driving cessation. The size of each square is proportional to the relative weight that each study contributed to the summary OR.
The diamond indicates the summary OR. Horizontal bars indicate the 95% CIs. Heterogeneity: Q statistic: 3.266, df = 4,
P = .51, I2 = 0.000.
JAGS
FEBRUARY 2016–VOL. 64, NO. 2
studies included in the meta-analysis. Moreover, these five
studies were of high quality, as indicated by NOS scores.
With the exception of one study,4 the underlying populations studied were nationally representative samples of the
U.S. population. Because of the integral role that driving
plays in personal identity and independence, driving cessation may lead to psychological reactions.4 The perceived
loss of control that accompanies driving cessation may
partly explain the association between driving cessation
and greater depressive symptoms.6 Not much is known
about the extent to which existing transition services and
programs contribute to the maintenance of control beliefs
and social functioning, but studies have found that availability and access of alternative transport may not mitigate
the observed risk of increased depressive symptoms.2,34
Given the observational nature of the included studies, the
possibility that driving cessation and depression are both
consequences of some other common factor (e.g., declining
health) cannot be completely excluded. Nevertheless, additional research may identify effective interventions that
can avoid the worsening of depressive symptoms associated with driving cessation.37
Prior research reported conflicting findings on the
effect of driving cessation on general health. Although
some researchers found nondrivers to have more medical
conditions and poorer health than drivers,17 others have
reported the opposite.22,38 There is growing evidence that
driving cessation may exacerbate decline in general
health.32 The prospective nature of the study on health trajectories,14 adjusting for baseline covariates, offers compelling evidence of this effect. The conflicting evidence in
the literature might be explained in part by the fact that
healthier people adapt better to driving cessation than
those in poorer health.13 Additional large, prospective
studies controlling for location and medical conditions are
required to further establish the effect of driving cessation
on health.
Based on the current findings, driving cessation may
hasten declines in physical and social health in older
adults. Older ex-drivers tend to have markedly fewer outof-home activities as they substitute indoor activities for
outside activities.14 Although older adults tend to find substitute activities to do around the home,17 those activities
may not benefit physical functioning as much as productive work or volunteerism outside the home does. The
health implications of markedly poorer physical functioning are profound in terms of worsening of underlying
physical and emotional problems, deconditioning, and
need for support with IADLs. As older adults transition to
stopping driving, programs should be in place to facilitate
continued physical and social activities.
Although there were discrepancies in the assessment of
social functioning after driving cessation, the findings are
generally consistent. In some qualitative studies, older exdrivers mentioned loss of spontaneity and the increasing
need to plan things ahead of time,5,39 which can limit
opportunities for out-of-home social engagement and
activities. Loss of social functioning appears to affect
women more than men, but women who voluntarily cease
driving seem prepared to adapt to a nondriving lifestyle,
whereas those who were forced to stop had a more difficult transition.39 Because of lifestyle changes, many older
HEALTH CONSEQUENCES OF DRIVING CESSATION
339
adults may combine errands such as a trip to the drug
store with seeing a friend.5 Although declines in social
activities may be gradual,35 they have been found to
strongly mediate the association between driving cessation
and mortality over time.32
Exdrivers tend to have poorer cognitive abilities than
current drivers. Although most studies have shown that
declines in cognitive abilities contribute to driving cessation, there is a paucity of studies focusing on the effect of
driving cessation on cognitive abilities. Findings from one
study1 indicate a possible bidirectional association between
driving status and cognitive abilities.
Factors that are likely to precipitate mortality are
also likely to affect driving status, making it difficult to
establish a causal relationship between driving cessation
and mortality, but the two studies32,36 included in this
review adjusted for baseline covariates that could confound the association between driving cessation and mortality. Both studies indicate that driving cessation is a
strong risk marker for mortality, possibly by worsening
the diminishing functional capabilities of the normal
aging process.
The aforementioned adverse health consequences
notwithstanding, reducing or ceasing driving in older
adults may have safety benefits. One study21 reported a
45% reduction in the annual rate of crash injury in medically unfit drivers after they received warnings from their
physicians.
Although this review provides an up-to-date synthesis of the research literature on driving cessation and
health outcomes, it has several notable limitations. With
the exception of one study, the studies examining the
effect of driving cessation on depressive symptoms
included a self-report depression scale rather than a clinical diagnosis and thus were able to examine changes
only on the scale and not in the proportion of participants classified as clinically depressed. In addition, the
assessments of other health outcomes varied substantially
across the studies reviewed. The use of standardized
measures could allow for quantitative synthesis to obtain
robust estimates of effect size. Two studies14,32 used
data from the same project, but the respective study
samples did not overlap. Finally, this review was limited
to studies published in English and excluded qualitative
studies, which can provide rich and deep—although not
generalizable—information about the effects of driving
cessation. Additional longitudinal studies using standardized measures of health outcomes are needed to better
understand the effects of driving cessation on health and
well-being in older adults, particularly as to how these
effects may differ according to geographic location and
other driver characteristics.
CONCLUSIONS
There is mounting evidence that driving cessation in older
adults may contribute to a variety of health problems. Of
special note is the apparent effect of driving cessation on
self-reported depressive symptoms. Pooled data from five
studies indicate that driving cessation nearly doubles the
risk of greater depressive symptoms in older adults. The
strength of the association between driving cessation and
340
CHIHURI ET AL.
self-reported depressive symptoms is generally consistent
across studies. This finding may be generalizable to the
older adult population in the United States because the
underlying population in four of the five studies came from
nationally representative samples in the United States, and
the fifth came from a fairly comparable Western Australian population. This review also sheds light on other
health outcomes of driving cessation, including declines in
cognitive abilities, diminished physical and social functioning, and greater risks of LTC entry and mortality. These
adverse health consequences should be taken into consideration when an older adult ceases driving. Access to alternative transportation may not necessarily mediate the
association between driving cessation and greater depressive symptoms.2,34 Effective intervention programs to
ensure and prolong mobility and physical and social functioning for older adults are needed.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors are thankful to Dr. David W. Eby of the
University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute
for his helpful comments.
Conflict of Interest: The authors have no conflict of
interests to disclose.
This research was supported in part by the AAA
Foundation for Traffic Safety’s Longitudinal Research on
Aging Drivers (LongROAD) Project and the National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention (Grant 1 R49 CE002096).
Author Contributions: Chihuri: literature review;
acquisition, analysis, and interpretation of data; drafting
of manuscript; critical revision. Mielenz, DiMaggio, Betz,
DiGuiseppi, Jones: data analysis and interpretation, critical
revision. Li: secured funding, study concept and design,
critical revision.
Sponsor’s Role: Dr. Jurek G. Grabowski of the AAA
Foundation for Traffic Safety provided helpful comments.
The contents of the manuscript are solely the responsibility
of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official
views of the funding agencies.
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