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History of Alcohol Use Disorders and Risk
of Severe Cognitive Impairment: A 19-Year
Prospective Cohort Study
_
Elzbieta
Ku
z ma, Ph.D., David J. Llewellyn, Ph.D., Kenneth M. Langa, Ph.D.,
Robert B. Wallace, M.D., Iain A. Lang, Ph.D.
Objective: To assess the effects of a history of alcohol use disorders (AUDs) on risk of
severe cognitive and memory impairment in later life. Methods: We studied the association between history of AUDs and the onset of severe cognitive and memory
impairment in 6,542 middle-aged adults born 1931 through 1941 who participated
in the Health and Retirement Study, a prospective nationally representative U.S.
cohort. Participants were assessed at 1992 baseline and follow-up cognitive assessments were conducted biannually from 1996 through 2010. History of AUDs was
identified using the three-item modified CAGE questionnaire. Cognitive outcomes
were assessed using the 35-item modified Telephone Interview for Cognitive Status at
last follow-up with incident severe cognitive impairment defined as a score 8, and
incident severe memory impairment defined as a score 1 on a 20-item memory
subscale. Results: During up to 19 years of follow-up (mean: 16.7 years, standard
deviation: 3.0, range: 3.5e19.1 years), 90 participants experienced severe cognitive
impairment and 74 participants experienced severe memory impairment. History of
AUDs more than doubled the odds of severe memory impairment (odds ratio [OR] ¼
2.21, 95% confidence interval [CI] ¼ 1.27e3.85, t ¼ 2.88, df ¼ 52, p ¼ 0.01). The
association with severe cognitive impairment was statistically non-significant but in
the same direction (OR ¼ 1.80, 95% CI ¼ 0.97e3.33, t ¼ 1.92, df ¼ 52, p ¼ 0.06).
Conclusion: Middle-aged adults with a history of AUDs have increased odds of
developing severe memory impairment later in life. These results reinforce the need to
consider the relationship between alcohol consumption and cognition from a
multifactorial lifespan perspective. (Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 2014; -:-e-)
Key Words: Alcohol use disorders, CAGE, memory impairment, cognitive impairment
Received December 30, 2013; revised April 24, 2014; accepted June 2, 2014. From the University of Exeter Medical School (EK, DJL, IAL),
Exeter, United Kingdom; the National Institute for Health Research Collaboration for Leadership in Applied Health Research and Care for the
South West Peninsula (NIHR PenCLAHRC) (EK, DJL, IAL), Leeds, United Kingdom; the University of Michigan and Veterans Affairs Center
for Clinical Management Research (KML), Ann Arbor, MI; and the College of Public Health, University of Iowa (RBW), Iowa City, IA. An
early version of this study was presented in part at the Alzheimer’s Association International Conference (AAIC), July 13e18, 2013, in Boston,
MA. Send correspondence and reprint requests to Iain A. Lang, Ph.D., University of Exeter Medical School, Veysey Building, Salmon Pool
Ln., Exeter, EX2 4SG, United Kingdom. e-mail: I.Lang@exeter.ac.uk
Supplemental digital content is available for this article in the HTML and PDF versions of this article on the journal’s Web site (www.
ajgponline.org).
Ó 2014 American Association for Geriatric Psychiatry
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jagp.2014.06.001
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1
Alcohol Use Disorders and Cognitive Impairment Risk
D
ementia presents major clinical and societal
challenges and has enormous public health implications. In the United States, dementia affects around
13.9% of people aged over 70 years1 and cost the economy between US$ 159 billion and 215 billion in 2010.2
The considerable human and financial cost of dementia means understanding the causes of dementia and
identifying potentially modifiable risk factors are crucial.
Dementia risk is known to be associated with mean
levels of current alcohol consumption. Recent metaanalyses suggest a J-shaped relationship between
mean alcohol consumption and subsequent risk of
Alzheimer dementia and all-cause dementia with
lower risk in comparison to moderate drinkers.3,4 Mean
intake captures only one aspect of alcohol consumption, however, and the relationship between dementia
and harmful patterns of alcohol consumption such as
alcohol use disorders (AUDs), characterized by alcohol
dependence or alcohol abuse (recurrent alcohol use
associated with a range of problems but not meeting
criteria of dependence),5 is largely unknown.
Risks of dementia and short-term mortality were
associated with AUDs in the Canadian Study of Health
and Aging.6 History of AUDs increased the odds of
memory impairment in a 6-year follow up of 3,822
middle-aged men from the U.S. Health and Retirement
Study (HRS),7 and was found to be associated with
increased prevalence of cognitive and functional
impairment and dementia in women but not men in a
cross-sectional study of 1,145 older adults aged over 59
years in Brazil.8 AUDs may be related to dementia via
a number of mechanisms including brain damage due
to toxic effects of alcohol, metabolic changes in the
brain, neurotransmitter imbalances,9 and nutritional
deficiency.10 No previous study, however, has examined the long-term relationship between history of
AUDs and risk of dementia-related outcomes. We
used data on middle-aged HRS participants followed
for up to 19 years to address the hypothesis that history
of AUDs is associated with an increased risk of severe
cognitive and memory impairment in later life.
enrolled in 1992 and re-interviewed biannually
thereafter.11 The HRS subsequently expanded,
merging with the Asset and Health Dynamic of the
Oldest Old survey and adding additional cohorts12 so
that in 1998 it became nationally representative of the
community-dwelling U.S. population aged 51 years
and older.13 The HRS is supported by the U.S. National Institute on Aging and conducted by the
Institute for Social Research at the University of
Michigan. The HRS was approved by the Health
Sciences institutional review board at the University
of Michigan. We used anonymous HRS data and a
longitudinal data set, the RAND HRS Data file
(Version M),14 derived from the HRS data by the
RAND Center for the Study of Aging with funding
from the U.S. National Institute on Aging and the
Social Security Administration. All data can be obtained from the study website (http://hrsonline.isr.
umich.edu).
Our analyses were based on data from 8,663 selfrespondents born 1931 through 1941 with complete
1992 baseline cognitive score (see Fig. 1). Excluding
those who were two standard deviations below the
mean on baseline cognitive score reduced the analysis group to 8,532. Between 1996 and 2010, a total of
6,542 participants aged 65 years or over at follow-up
FIGURE 1. Diagram of the study population. SD: Standard
deviation.
METHODS
Study Population
The original HRS study involved a cohort of adults
born between 1931 and 1941 and their spouses
2
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Ku
z ma et al.
completed at least one follow-up cognitive assessment (mean length of follow-up [SD]: 16.7 [3.0],
range: 3.5e19.1 years).
Compared with the analyzed group, those not
included in our analyses were younger (t ¼ 8.20,
df ¼ 8661, p <0.001), less likely to be women (c2 ¼
55.38, df ¼ 1, p <0.001), less educated (t ¼ 10.15,
df ¼ 8661, p <0.001), and had a lower baseline
memory score (t ¼ 15.21, df ¼ 8661, p <0.001).
Assessment of AUDs
We identified history of AUDs based on responses
to the CAGE instrument, a validated screening
questionnaire.15,16 The CAGE consists of four questions and its key elements build the acronym: Have
you ever felt you should Cut down on your drinking?
Have people ever Annoyed you by criticizing your
drinking? Have you ever felt bad or Guilty about
drinking? Have you ever taken a drink first thing in
the morning (Eye-opener) to steady your nerves or get
rid of a hangover? We used a modified three-item
version of the CAGE which omits the “cut-down”
question because a wish to reduce alcohol consumption, possibly due to health concerns, is common in those aged 50 years and over and reduces this
item’s discriminatory value.17 The three-item version
of the CAGE with a cutoff point of 1 has a sensitivity
of 84% and a specificity of 69% for alcohol abuse or
dependence (i.e., alcohol use disorders).17
Assessment of Cognitive Function
At baseline in 1992, memory was assessed using
immediate and delayed word recall tasks of 20 nouns
(with a total score ranging from 0e40) as previously
described.18 Abstract reasoning was assessed at
baseline using a modified similarities test18 from the
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised.19 Participants were asked to describe similarities between
seven pairs of words—for example, orange and banana (score ranging from 0e14).18 We z-standardized
both scores (mean of 0 and SD of 1), summed them
and z-standardized them again to derive a baseline
global cognitive function score which gave equal
weighting to memory and abstract reasoning. Full
cognitive assessment was neither available in 1992
nor in 1994.18
At follow-up from 1996 through 2010 global
cognitive function was measured using a modified
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version of the Telephone Interview for Cognitive
Status (mTICS),20 an adaptation of the widely used
Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE).21 The
mTICS includes orientation items from the MMSE,
immediate and delayed recall of 10 words, the Serial
7s subtraction test, backwards counting from 20, object naming, and naming the current U.S. President
and Vice President.18 Scores on the mTICS range from
0 to 35 points and higher scores represent better
cognitive function. Based upon previous research,22
we used a cutoff score of 8 (two standard deviations
below the mean) to define severe global cognitive
impairment indicative of dementia. For each respondent we used the last available mTICS score between
1996 and 2010, thus ensuring all participants had at
least four years of follow-up and reducing loss of information due to subsequent mortality. Missing
values for partially completed mTICS assessments
were imputed by HRS investigators as previously
described.23
Memory at follow-up was measured using the
immediate and delayed recall of 10 words with
higher scores (ranging from 0e20) representing better
memory.18 We derived a cut-point to define severe
memory impairment based upon the distribution of
scores in HRS participants aged 65 years and older in
1998 when the study became population representative of community-dwelling U.S. elders13 (participant
characteristics in Supplemental Table 1; available online). Applying the same approach used previously to
define severe global cognitive impairment (two standard deviations below the mean) resulted in a cutoff
score of 1 to define severe memory impairment that
we applied to the last available wave of follow-up.
Statistical Analyses
We calculated baseline characteristics for our sample and compared those with and without history of
AUDs using a Pearson’s c2 test for categorical variables and a Student’s t-test for continuous variables.
To investigate the association between history of
AUDs and odds of severe cognitive and memory
impairment we used multivariate logistic regression
models, weighted to ensure sample representativeness and to account for clustering and stratification.
We adjusted our models for variables that have previously been identified as potential confounders in
studies of alcohol consumption and dementia risk.3,4
3
Alcohol Use Disorders and Cognitive Impairment Risk
In basic adjusted models, we controlled for age, sex,
years of formal education, and years of follow-up. In
fully adjusted models, we also included race (categorized as White or Caucasian versus Other; the
Other category includes Black or African American,
American Indian, Alaskan Native, Asian, and Pacific
Islander), socioeconomic status (high versus low
resulting from a median split of the total household
income in U.S. dollars), smoking status (current
smoker versus nonsmoker), obesity (body mass
index 30, calculated as kg/m2), physical inactivity
(defined as engaging in light or vigorous physical
activity or heavy housework less than once weekly),
and depressive symptoms (cutoff of 924 on the 11-item
Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale,25
range: 0e33). After estimating the fully adjusted
models we calculated the average predicted probability for those with and without history of AUDs.
In a series of secondary analyses we investigated
the influence of potential mediators (hypertension,
cardiovascular disease, and head injury) as suggested
by the existing literature.26e29 Self-reported doctordiagnosed history of hypertension and cardiovascular
disease (heart attack, coronary heart disease, angina,
congestive heart failure, or other heart problems as
indicative of cardiovascular disease), and history of
unconsciousness due to head injury were added to
fully adjusted models to investigate whether they
accounted for any observed association.
We also carried out a number of sensitivity analyses. To investigate whether our results were sensitive to the operationalization of dementia-related
outcomes at follow-up we repeated our main analyses substituting our dichotomous outcome variables (severe cognitive and memory impairment)
with z-standardized continuous outcomes using
linear rather than logistic regression models. To
determine whether any observed association was
driven by current heavy drinking we excluded participants consuming three or more drinks per day. At
baseline participants who consumed alcohol were
asked if they had less than one drink a day, one to
two drinks a day, three or four drinks a day, or five
or more drinks a day. We also repeated our analyses
using the four-item CAGE with the standard 2 cutpoint to examine the effect of using the standard
four-item rather than the modified three-item CAGE.
All analyses were performed using STATA SE 13
(StataCorp, College Station, TX). Two-sided p values
4
of less than 0.05 were considered to be statistically
significant.
RESULTS
Baseline characteristics of the study population are
presented in Table 1. Compared with those with no
history of AUDs, those with history of AUDs were
younger, less educated, less likely to be female, more
likely to have lower socioeconomic status, to smoke,
to consume more than one alcoholic drink per day, to
have a history of cardiovascular disease or of having
been unconsciousness due to head injury, and to
have depressive symptoms, lower baseline cognitive
function, and shorter follow-up. No group differences were found regarding race, obesity, physical
inactivity, or history of hypertension.
During follow-up 90 participants experienced severe cognitive impairment and 74 participants experienced severe memory impairment. In both basic
and fully adjusted logistic regression models there
was an increase in the odds of severe memory
impairment for participants with a history of AUDs
(Table 2). History of AUDs more than doubled the
odds of memory impairment in a fully adjusted
model (odds ratio [OR]: 2.21, 95% confidence interval
[CI]: 1.27e3.85, t ¼ 2.88, df ¼ 52, p ¼ 0.01). Those
with a history of AUDs had a 1.84% (95% CI: 1.02%e
2.66%) chance of developing severe memory
impairment later in life compared with a 0.85% (95%
CI: 0.58%e1.12%) chance in those without a history
of AUDs. In a basic adjusted model, history of AUDs
almost doubled the odds of severe cognitive impairment (OR: 1.96, 95% CI: 1.04e3.70, t ¼ 2.13, df ¼ 52,
p ¼ 0.04). The association was non-significant in a
fully adjusted model but in the same direction (OR:
1.80, 95% CI: 0.97e3.33, t ¼ 1.92, df ¼ 52, p ¼ 0.06).
Those with a history of AUDs had a 1.86% (95% CI:
0.93%e2.79%) chance of developing severe cognitive
impairment later in life whereas those without a
history of AUDs had a 1.06% (95% CI: 0.73%e1.39%)
chance. Fully adjusted sensitivity analyses incorporating continuous cognitive outcomes confirmed that
history of AUDs was statistically significantly associated with lower memory (b ¼ 0.08, 95% CI: 0.15
to 0.02, t ¼ 2.65, df ¼ 52, p ¼ 0.01) and lower
cognitive function (b ¼ 0.07, 95% CI: 0.13
to 0.01, t ¼ 2.26, df ¼ 52, p ¼ 0.03) at follow-up.
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z ma et al.
TABLE 1. Baseline Sample Characteristics of 6,542 HRS Participants
Variable
Total
Age
Sex
Female
Race
White/Caucasian
Other
Education (years in school)
High socioeconomic status
Current smoker
Current alcohol consumption
Non-drinker
<1 drink a day
1e2 drinks a day
3e4 drinks a day
5 drinks a day
Depressive symptoms (CES-D)c
Obesity
Physical inactivity
Cognitive score
History of hypertension
History of cardiovascular disease
History of unconsciousness due to head injury
Length of follow-up (years)
History of AUDs
M (SD) or N (%)
No History of AUDs
M (SD) or N (%)
1065 (16.3)
55.4 (3.2)
5477 (83.7)
55.7 (3.2)
333 (31.3)
3400 (62.1)
862
203
12.1
529
366
(80.9)
(19.1)
(3.2)
(49.7)
(34.4)
4559
918
12.5
2936
1232
(83.2)
(16.8)
(3.0)
(53.6)
(22.5)
358
355
195
109
48
262
238
181
0.04
356
116
196
16.5
(33.6)
(33.3)
(18.3)
(10.2)
(4.5)
(24.6)
(22.4)
(17.0)
(0.97)
(33.4)
(10.9)
(18.4)
(3.1)
2106
2751
476
119
25
759
1326
948
0.12
1713
450
575
16.7
(38.5)
(50.2)
(8.7)
(2.2)
(0.5)
(13.9)
(24.2)
(17.3)
(0.97)
(31.3)
(8.2)
(10.5)
(3.0)
t/c2
df
p
2.60
6540
0.01a
345.48
1
<0.001b
3.32
1
0.07b
3.88
5.54
68.08
6540
1
1
<0.001a
0.02b
<0.001b
436.96
4
<0.001b
78.13
1.70
0.06
4.81
1.91
8.08
53.60
2.45
1
1
1
6540
1
1
1
6540
<0.001b
0.19b
0.80b
<0.001a
0.17b
<0.01b
<0.001b
0.01a
Notes: All values are shown unweighted. SD: standard deviation; df: degrees of freedom.
a
p value for a Student’s t-test.
b
p value for a Pearson’s c2 test.
c
CES-D: Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (11 items; range: 0e33; cutoff of 9 indicating depressive symptoms).
Additional adjustment for cardiovascular disease
and hypertension in midlife did not substantially
attenuate the results in secondary analyses (Table 3),
suggesting they do not mediate the relationship between history of AUDs and severe cognitive and
memory impairment later in life. Our findings also
remained mostly unchanged after adjusting for history of unconsciousness due to head injury (Table 3),
suggesting history of head injury does not mediate
the observed associations either.
In a series of further sensitivity analyses excluding
those currently consuming three or more drinks per
day did not change the pattern of observed associations (Table 4). Similarly, using the four-item version
of the CAGE questionnaire with a cut-point of two or
more positive answers indicating history of AUDs
also gave a similar pattern of results (Table 4).
DISCUSSION
Our results suggest odds of late-life severe memory
impairment are substantially increased in middle-aged
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adults with a history of AUDs. There was little evidence that this relationship is mediated by history of
hypertension, cardiovascular disease, or head injury.
The observed pattern of associations remained unchanged when continuous cognitive and memory
outcomes were used, current heavy drinkers were
excluded, and an alternative version of the CAGE
questionnaire was used.
Our findings are consistent with a previous HRS
study showing an increased odds of memory impairment in 3,822 middle-aged men who were followed for
6 years (OR: 1.71, 95% CI: 1.14e2.56).7 Our study
substantially improves on this previous work by
incorporating a much longer follow-up period, using a
larger cohort representative of both the male and female U.S. population, and examining both cognitive
and memory impairment. This increases our understanding of the role of personal drinking history before
late life and suggests that the CAGE questionnaire is
an appropriate instrument to identify individuals at
higher risk of future adverse cognitive outcomes
associated with history of AUDs. Our research confirms that in order to understand the relationship
5
Alcohol Use Disorders and Cognitive Impairment Risk
TABLE 2. Multivariate Logistic Regression Models of Severe Cognitive and Memory Impairment by History of AUDs
Model
Total No. of
Participants
No. of Cases
History of AUDs
OR (95% CI)
No History of AUDs
Wald test
df
p
6,542
6,542
90
90
1.96 (1.04e3.70)
1.80 (0.97e3.33)
1 [Reference]
1 [Reference]
2.13
1.92
52
52
0.04
0.06
6,542
6,542
74
74
2.27 (1.31e3.91)
2.21 (1.27e3.85)
1 [Reference]
1 [Reference]
3.01
2.88
52
52
<0.01
0.01
Severe cognitive impairment
Basic adjusted modela
Fully adjusted modelb
Severe memory impairment
Basic adjusted modela
Fully adjusted modelb
Notes: Based on weighted data. Ns are shown unweighted. OR: odds ratio; CI: confidence interval; df: degrees of freedom.
a
Adjusted for age, gender, education, length of follow-up.
b
Adjusted for age, sex, race, education, socioeconomic status, length of follow-up, smoking, depressive symptoms, physical inactivity, and
obesity.
TABLE 3. Multivariate Logistic Regression Models of Severe Cognitive and Memory Impairment by History of AUDs with Additional
Adjustment for Potential Mediatorsa
Mediation Analysis
Severe cognitive impairment
History of hypertension
History of cardiovascular disease
History of unconsciousness due to head injury
Severe memory impairment
History of hypertension
History of cardiovascular disease
History of unconsciousness due to head injury
Total No. of
Participants
No. of
Cases
History of AUDs
OR (95% CI)
No History
of AUDs
Wald test
df
p
6,542
6,542
6,542
90
90
90
1.80 (0.97e3.32)
1.82 (0.98e3.38)
1.83 (1.00e3.33)
1 [Reference]
1 [Reference]
1 [Reference]
1.92
1.94
2.02
52
52
52
0.06
0.06
0.05
6,542
6,542
6,542
74
74
74
2.22 (1.27e3.85)
2.21 (1.27e3.83)
2.22 (1.28e3.83)
1 [Reference]
1 [Reference]
1 [Reference]
2.89
2.89
2.93
52
52
52
0.01
0.01
0.01
Notes: Based on weighted data. Ns are shown unweighted. OR: odds ratio; CI: confidence interval; df: degrees of freedom.
a
Also adjusted for age, sex, race, education, socioeconomic status, length of follow-up, smoking, depressive symptoms, physical inactivity,
and obesity.
TABLE 4. Sensitivity Analyses: Multivariate Logistic Regression Models by History of AUDsa
Sensitivity Analysis
Severe cognitive impairment
Exclusion: current baseline
consumption of 3þ drinks
4-item CAGE
Severe memory impairment
Exclusion: current baseline
consumption of 3þ drinks
4-item CAGE
Total No. of
Participants
No. of
Cases
History of AUDs
OR (95% CI)
No History
of AUDs
Wald test
df
p
6,241
82
1.75 (0.86e3.55)
1 [Reference]
1.59
52
0.12
6,542
90
1.72 (0.85e3.50)
1 [Reference]
1.54
52
0.13
6,241
64
2.40 (1.34e4.31)
1 [Reference]
3.01
52
<0.01
6,542
74
2.08 (1.11e3.88)
1 [Reference]
2.35
52
0.02
Notes: Based on weighted data. Ns are shown unweighted. OR: odds ratio; CI: confidence interval; df: degrees of freedom.
a
Adjusted for age, sex, race, education, socioeconomic status, length of follow-up, smoking, depressive symptoms, physical inactivity, and
obesity.
between alcohol consumption and dementia more
fully we need to take into account more than just mean
consumption. Excluding current heavy drinkers did
not markedly change the pattern of associations, suggesting that the association between history of AUDs
and severe memory impairment does not simply
reflect current heavy mean consumption.
6
A number of mechanisms have been identified that
help to explain why history of AUDs may be linked to
cognitive impairment and dementia risk. Alcohol
dependence is associated with volume reduction in
white and gray matter, particularly in the frontal lobes,
parts of the limbic system, and the cerebellum.9 It is
linked to decreased glucose metabolism in cortical and
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subcortical structures and imbalance of neurotransmitters including GABAergic, serotonergic, dopaminergic, and opioidergic systems.9 Alcohol dependence
is also related to head injuries, liver cirrhosis, and
nutritional deficiency.10,30 Severe thiamine deficiency
may lead to Wernicke encephalopathy (confusion,
ataxia, nystagmus, and ophthalmoplegia) followed by
Korsakoff syndrome (severe memory disorder),
commonly referred to as Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome.10,31 In contrast to moderate alcohol consumption, alcoholism can be also detrimental to the
cardiovascular system resulting in cardiomyopathy,
cardiac arrhythmias, hypertension, and stroke.32 The
potential role of hypertension, cardiovascular disease
and head injury is less likely given the results of our
mediation analyses indicating that these conditions
did not substantially mediate the relationship between
history of AUDs and odds of severe cognitive and
memory impairment.
The strengths of the present study include its large
nationally representative population-based sample,
the prospective design with long follow-up, the use
of validated measures of history of AUDs and
cognitive function, and the adjustment for a wide
range of potential confounders. The lifetime AUDs
prevalence for those aged 45 to 64 years is 31% according to the U.S. National Epidemiologic Survey
on Alcohol and Related Conditions,33 whereas in our
study 16% reported a history of AUDs. A limitation
of this study, one it holds in common with all
population-based studies of alcohol consumption, is
its reliance on self-reported AUDs. Study participants
tend to underreport their alcohol consumption34 and
those engaging in risk behaviors are less likely to
participate in surveys.35 The CAGE questionnaire has
been shown to discriminate well between subjects
with and without history of AUDs, however, and is a
validated and widely used screening instrument.36 A
further limitation relates to the timing and duration
of AUDs. We were not able to take into account when
the AUDs occurred or their magnitude because they
are not assessed by the CAGE questionnaire.37 The
covariates were also based on self-report. Clinical
dementia diagnoses were not available and as a
result validated screening instruments were used to
identify participants with severe cognitive impairment indicative of dementia. Given that the association with severe memory impairment was stronger
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than that with severe global cognitive impairment,
future research incorporating dementia subtypes is
warranted to establish whether the link between
AUDs and Alzheimer disease is stronger than that
with other dementia subtypes. As with all observational studies the possibility of unmeasured
confounding—for example, illicit drug use related to
AUDs—remains, and our results in themselves do
not demonstrate causality.
In conclusion, our findings suggest middle-aged
adults with a history of AUDs are at increased risk of
developing severe memory impairment later in life.
These results reinforce the need to consider the relationship between alcohol consumption and cognition
from a multifactorial lifespan perspective. Further
research is therefore warranted to investigate patterns
of alcohol consumption including the timing and
duration of AUDs. Gaining greater insight into the role
that comorbid conditions, such as AUDs, play in the
natural history of dementia may lead to new opportunities for prevention. The CAGE questionnaire may
offer clinicians a practical way to identify individuals
at risk of adverse dementia-related outcomes who
may benefit from interventions targeting AUDs.
Elz_ bieta Kuzma, David J. Llewellyn, and Iain A. Lang
acknowledge support from the National Institute for
Health Research (NIHR) Collaboration for Leadership in
Applied Health Research and Care (CLAHRC) for the
South West Peninsula. Iain A. Lang is funded by a National Institute for Health Research Knowledge Mobilisation Research Fellowship. This article presents
independent research partly funded by the National
Institute for Health Research. The views expressed in this
publication are those of the authors and not necessarily
those of the NHS, the NIHR, or the Department of Health
in England. Elz_ bieta Kuzma and David J. Llewellyn also
acknowledge funding from the Mary Kinross Charitable
Trust. Additionally, David J. Llewellyn receives funding
from the Alzheimer Association (NIRG-11-200737), the
Norman Family Charitable Trust, the James Tudor
Foundation, and the Halpin Trust. The National Institute
on Aging (NIA) provided funding for the Health and
Retirement Study (U01AG09740), data from which were
used for this analysis. The Health and Retirement Study is
performed at the Survey Research Center, Institute for
Social Research, University of Michigan.
The authors have no disclosures to report.
7
Alcohol Use Disorders and Cognitive Impairment Risk
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2014
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